"Tionghoa Dalam Cengkeraman SBKRI" Review

Kurniawan Hari
The Jakarta Post, October 19, 2008

If there is a decades-old issues which still casts a chilling effect on most Indonesians of Chinese descent (Indonesian-Chinese), it is SBKRI. In Indonesian, SBKRI stands for Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia which means a certificate of Indonesian citizenship. Every Indonesian born from a Chinese couple needs to produce this certificate when they are 18 years old.

As a document, SBKRI is not so special. It simply looks like a passport. But the problem surrounding the issue is not no simple- it isn’t just a matter of having a legal document as it is clear evidence of existing discrimination against Indonesian-Chinese in this country. While other Indonesian citizens do not need to register to obtain this certificate, Indonesian-Chinese have to do so or they will face legal problems.

Tionghoa Dalam Cengkeraman SBKRI (Indonesian-Chinese Under SBKRI Claws), provides the historical background and contemporary information that will help reader to understand this issue. The ideas and thoughts in this book give the historical, political and economic perspectives of this nation’s journey to define nationhood. Are the state policies fair for all its citizens? Do all state institutions (immigration, police, prosecuting office and state court) understand the meaning of nationhood and citizenship?

Its importance can be seen from comments made by various political experts and observers. Columnist Mohammad Sobary, for example, says the SBKRI issue must be resolved in order to build a civilized nation. Harry Tjan Silalahi, founder of the Centre for Strategic and International Studies, said that while the issue of SBKRI is not a new one, the public can still learn something from this book.

SBKRI is discussed in eight chapters. Chapter one focuses on unending discriminative practice. Despite the issuance of presidential decrees, ordering an end to these practice, the immigration office continues to maintain this policy.

Chapter two discusses the format, the policy and the institutionalization of discrimination while Chapter three underlines the issue of racialism behind the implementation of SBKRI policy.

Chapter four emphasizes the need to launch bureaucratic reform. SBKRI highlights the contradictory policies among state institutions. Therefore, there is an urgent need to launch bureaucratic reform

Chapter five provides recognition of the institutions and regional administrations that have scrapped SBKRI policies. However; some offices still use the policy because there are no penalties or sanctions against those who do. Meanwhile, Chapter six discusses the comments by state officials regarding the issue in the media.

Chapter seven focuses on the enactment of the 2008 Citizenship Law and its impact on the policy while Chapter eight talks about Indonesia’s never ending discriminative practice.

In his prologue, political expert and Defense Minister Juwono Sudarsono said the public should welcome this book as a means to strengthen their will as Indonesian citizens to treat all their fellow citizens equally.

This book is enriched with cases of discriminative practice, articles on related laws and regulations and comments from state officials. It is hoped that the book will draw decision makers into introspection and hence help them rediscover the spirit of nationalism. A peaceful resolution of the SBKRI policy is not just a means of solving discrimination problems, but will also lay the foundation for effective, transparent and accountable governance

Peng. Sejarah Kesusastraan Inggris

· Periode Agustus (1700-1750)

Karya sastra periode agustus merupakan refleksi dari karya2 besar pada masa pemerintahan kaisar Agustus. Ciri2:
1. adanya keinginan akan sistem serta keteraturan dalam penulisan karya2pada masa pemerintahan kausar Agustus
2. gaya bahasa yg jelas, akurat, sederhanaserta kesan meninggalkan individualitas
3.cenderung mengintelektualkan karya sastra akibat revolusi industri
PROSA
1. Daniel Dafoe:pelopor karya fiksi realistis, seorang pedagang, agen rahasia, artawan dan penulis yg produktif
a. The life and the strange surprising adventure of robinson crusoe, marinir yg kapalnya terdampar di pulau terpencil
b. The life adventure and piracies of the famous captain singleton
c. The history of remarkable life of colonel jacque commonly, ttg hidup pencopet
d. The fortune and misfortune of the famous moll flanders, ttg tunasusila sekaligus pencopet
e. Roxana of the fortune mistress, ttg pelacuran di kalangan bangsawan
2. Jonathan Swift:humor tinggi,intelek dan sekretaris pribadi sir william temple setelah lulus dari Trinity, ciri2:sederhana, jelas, pilihan kata tepat, ekonomis dalam kata
a. Tale of a tub dan the battle of a book, satir yg berkaitan dgn korupsi di bidang agama dan pendidikan
b. the progress of poetry dan the day of jugdement
c. modest proposal,ttg anak2 miskin irlandia
d.Gulliver travel, ttg kesengsaraan hidup manusia
3. Samuel Johnson, pengikutya James Boswel
a. The vanity of human wishes,ttg puisi Johnson
b. Rasseles, ttg filsafat dan agama
c. the Rambler dan The idler, berupa terbitan2 berkala
d. dictionary of the english language, kamus inggris terlengkap terbit tahun 1755
PUISI
1. Alexander Pope, penganut katolik tidak memiliki hak pilih, dikucilkan dari kelompok penulispada peerintahan ratu Anne
a. Hammrusialliad dan odyssey, karya terjemahan
b. Essay on Man, ungkapan2 menjadi sukses luar biasa
c. The rape of the rock, ttg kepahlawanan yg mencemooh
d. The elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady, ttg puisi cinta romantis
e. Dunciad, ttg satire tajam thd sastrawan yg telah mengkritiknya
DRAMA
1. John Gray, the beggar Opera, drama satire thd opera italia
2. George lilo, the london marchant of history of george barnwell, drama sosialis yg realistis

· Periode Transisi ke Romantisme
1. James thompson, the season, inspirasi alam dan juga rasa simpati td rakyat kecil
2. Edward young, night toughts, curahan perasaan melankolis
PUISI
1. Thomas Gray, elegy written in a country churhyard, 126 baris selama 9 tahun, the fatal sisters &the descent of odin
2. Oliver Goldsmith, The deserted village, berbentuk heroic couplet dan katanya masih konvensional
3. William Coper, John Gipin& the task, ciri2 romantik sudah menonjol
4. Robert Burns, poem chiefly in scottish dialect
5. William blake, song of innocence dan song of experience, ttg cintanya thd alam dan hewan
6. James macpherson, fragment of ancient poetry collected in the highland, terjemahan dari naskah kuno g ditulis dalam bahasa gaelic
7. Thomas Chartetton, rowley papers, berisi dokumen2 kuno
PROSA
1. Chronicle, laporan ttg kejadian2 yg menyangkut seseorang
2. Plotted adventure story, treasure island, memiliki rangka cerita jika bagian tidak dipisahkan
3. Romance, fiksi prosa tertua dalam kesusastraan inggris
NOVEL
mencerminkan kehidupan apa adanya
1. Charles Dicken, oliver twist dan jane austen, pride and prejudice
2. Samuel Richardson, penulis ovel pertama inggris
a. Pamela or Virtue rewarded, diterbitkan dalam 4 jilid
b. Clarissa or The history of a young lady, diterbitkan dalam 8 jilid
c. Sir Charles Grandion, dalam 7 jilid
3. Henry Fielding, novelnya penuh humor, realistis dan kasar
a. Joseph Andrews dan the history of tom jones, a foundling
DRAMA
1. Goldsmith, karyanya the good nature man dan she stops to conquer, drama ini masih populer diantara kelompok2 amatir karena adegan kocak dan lucu, dan tidak beitu sukar dimainkan
2. Brinsley Sheridan, the rivals, the school for scandal dan the critic, penuh dgn dialog cemerlang, suasana lebh cerah
· Periode Victoria

1. Charles Darwin, The origin of the species, teori evolusi biologis
ciri2: prosa berlembang dgn sgt baik, merupakan sarana yg efektif untuk menyajikan masalah2 dan bertujuan meningkatkan moral msyrkt
PUISI
semangat berpuisi dengan nada leih serius dan cenderung kearah penetapan standar baik dalam bentuk maupun isi
1. Alfred Lord Tennyson, cenderung ke penguasaan dan kecermatan
a. the princess ttg emansipasi wanita, in memoriam dibuat untuk temannya yg sudah meninggal, locksley hall ttg materialisme, demokrasi dan ttg perdamaian dan ttg persatuan antar bangsa sedunia, maud ttg nasionalisme yg berlebih
2. Robert Browning, tdpat unsur diktatik, the ring and the book yg merupakan sajak terpanjang(21000 baris)
3. Elizabeth Barret, adalah istri browning, ttg ajaran2 dan menyuarakan ideal2 moral dan social, the cry of the children, ttg perbudakan anak, casa guidi windows merupakan kombinasi antara puisi dan politik
4. Matthew Arnold, hellenisme yaitu keterbukaan pikiran dan kesukaan akan ide baru, essay in criticism dan culture and anarchy
5. Dante Gabriel Rossetti, pemimpin kel. Pre Raphaecites istilah ini digunakan oleh kel. pelukis yg berusaha mengembalikan kesederhanaan dan kejujuran zaman pertengahan
PROSA
1. Charles Dickens, ttg anak miskin yg memilukan hati, "Nicholas Nickleby", Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great expectation
2. William Makepeace Thackeray

Peng. Pengk. Kesusastraan Inggris

DRAMA

Karya sastra yang ditulis dalam bentuk dialog u/ dipentaskan di atas panggung, di hadapan penonton o/ aktor2
Ciri2 drama: dialog, dipentaskan (ada tindakan), penonton (paling penting dlm drama), actor
Drama means naskah/pertunjukan
Closet drama: drama yg tidak bisa dipentaskan dan hanya berupa naskah saja,karena:
- closet means kamar/ruangan yg berukuran kecil
- dlm pembuatan&penggadaan naskah drama dilakukan scr manual shgga harganya mahal maka hanya dibacakan dalam kelompok2 kecil saja
- keterbatasan teknologi saat itu shg tdk bsa menghadirkan setting yg bgus

STRUKTUR DRAMA

Digambarkan dgn piramida yg pya 5 tahap yg dsbut FREYTAG’S PYRAMID
INTRODUCTION, COMPLICATION, KLIMAKS, FALLING ACTION, CATASTROPE
1. INTRODUCTION
Fokus: memberi informasi2 penting u/ menciptakan suasana dan pd umumnya drama tidak dimulai dgn introduction tpi diawali ditengah2 kejadian, contoh:
Drama Shakespeare “HAMLET”
- awal pementasan (tdk pd bag awal tp ditengah2) setting tempat di dpn kerajaan, setting waktu sgt mencekam, dialog ttg adanya arwah gentayangan yg mirip raja&cerita ini sampe ke telinga hamlet
- informasi tersebut menciptakan rangkaian cerita selanjutnya mllui dialog tsb
2. COMPLICATION
Mrpk rangkaian konflik yg digerakkan o/ suatu kekuatan yg dsbut EXITING FORCE yg make seseorang melakukan tindakan
3. KLIMAKS
- bag ini tjdi ketika konflik2 tsb mencapai puncak yg tertinggi yg dsbut TURNING POINT (titik balik) yaitu titik yg merubah segalanya
- SOLILOQUY: pikiran yg diucapkan dlm drama yg tdk bisa didengarkan orang lain, contoh: TO BE OR NOT TO BE
• mengada/ tidak, menjadi/ tidak, melakukan/ tidak, ini menjadi ciri khas HAMLET yaitu pertentangan hati/ dilemma/ keragu-raguan
4. FALLING ACTION
Bag yg digerakkan o/ tragic force/ kekuatan tragis yg m’arahkan tokoh kedlm masalah/keterpurukan
5. CATASTROPHE
- malapetaka, kumpulan kegagalan, masalah, musibah2
- ciri: tokoh utama menjelaskan semua y terjadi sblum tokoh tsb meninggal(in tragic drama)

KONVENSI DRAMA

- suatu perjanjian/ kesepakatan yg tdk tertulis
- kebiasaan2 yg dilakukan o/ penulisyg kemudian diikuti penulis drama yg lain shg menjadi kesepakatan
- kesepakatan yg ada tidak harus diikuti krna penulis dpt menciptakan kesepakatan yg baru
- hal2 yg sering muncul pd kesepakatan drama YUNANI KLASIK a.l:
1. ACT (babak)
- pembagiannya jelas, ada 5 babak jika mengikuti FREYTAG’S PYRAMID
- pd abad 19, jmlh babak mjdi 4 yaitu 1,2,3, 4+5
- pd abad 20, jmlh babak njdi 3 yaitu, 1+2, 3, 4+5
2. SCENE (adegan)
- Pembagiannya tidak jelas, membagi berdasar tata panggung, artinya jika ada tokoh penting muncul di panggung berarti awal scene baru, if tokh tsbut menghilang berarti akhir dri acene
3. PROLOG
- Semacam kata pembuka/perkenalan, pada drama YUNANI KLASIK, ada orang yg akan bercerita ttg adegan2 yg akan terjadi sebelum layar terbuka
4. EPILOG
- Pidato/kata penutup, tirai ditutup, seseorang yg akan menyampaikan prolog akan muncul kembali&say thanks
- Karena factor buta huruf para penonton maka hal ini sangat berguna
5. ASIDE
- melihat kea rah samping, tujuannya menyampaikan hal yg akan terjadi kpd para penonton dgn suara keras
- hal ini dilakukan karena pementasan dilakukan di atas panggung yg tfk bias diketahui seperti ketika membaca novel
6. SOLILOQUI
- pikiran yg diucapkan dalam drama yg tidak bias didengarkan orang lain, tokohnya muncul sendirian
7. CHORUS
- informasi ttg apa yg akan muncul berikutnya yg dikemas dlm bentk nyanyian&tarian o/ sekelompok penyanyi/penari, yg berfungsi sbgai hiburan

JENIS-JENIS DRAMA

1. MYSTERY FLAT
- suatu drama keagamaan yg didasarkan pd sejarah kitab suci
- berawal dari gereja, kemudian berkembang mjdi drama keagamaan yg dipentaskan berkeliling di luar gereja dgn gerobak2 sbgai panggungnya dan pemainnya sudah mulai profesional
2. MIRACLE FLAT
- focus pd keajaiban2 yg dimiliki orang2/ benda2 yg dianggap suci
3. MORALITY FLAT
- Bersifat mendidik moral agar jiwa manusia selamat
4. INTERLUDE FLAT
- drama pendek yg muncul sekitar abad 15 yg dimainkan o/ 2 ato 3 pemain dgn topic yg ringan
- durasi pendek dan pemain terbatas, sering dimainkan dalam pesta2
5. VOGUE DRAMA
- drama rakyat jelata, dimainkan setelah panen raya dgn topic yg berhubungan dgn rakyat jelata
6. HEROIC DRAMA
- mempunyai ciri berupa tontonan yang luar biasa, konflik sering berlebih2 an
7. MELODRAMA
- berdasar pd plot yg roman, tujuannya u/ mengaduk-aduk emosi penonton, scra literal MELOS berarti nyanyian “a play with music” jg dsbut opera
8. TRAGEDY DRAMA
- Drama yg mengungkapkan kembal peristiwa yg penting dan saling berhubungan yg terjadi dlm kehidupan seorang tokoh penting
- targedi: nyanyian kambing, merefleksikan upacara kematian&kebangkitan kembai yg bersifat DIONYSION dmn kambing tsbut dijadikan binatang persembahan
- DIONYSION, dewa YUNANI yg menguasai anggur
- Tujuan tragedy menurut ARISTOTEL: u/ menumbuhkan rasa kasihan&ketakutan dalam diri penonton shgga mengalami CHATARSIS dri emosi tsbut, yaitu pensucian kembali

UNSUR-UNSUR DRAMA

1. TRAGIC HERO
- pd dasarnya bersifat baik, mampu membela diri, mencerminkan sifat manusia, missal ODYPUS REX ketika membunuh ayahnya&tdk tahu klo org tsb ayahnya
2. TRAGIC FLAW
- Kesalahan personality yg membawa tragic hero kearah kejatuhan, dsbut jga Hamartia
a. hubris, sifat terlalu percaya diri dan akhirnya make mistake
b. ambisi yg luar biasa, ex:pda tokoh Machbat
c. keraguan yg luar biasa, ex:pda tokoh Hamlet
d. rasa cemburu yg tidak dikontrol, ex:pda tokoh Otelo
3. TRAGIC ACTION
- tindakan tragis yg dilakukan o/ tragic hero g\dgn maksud baik tpi ternyata mengantarnya kea rah kesalahan
4. TRAGIC IRONI
- apa yg tampak berada dgn kenyataanya
5. TRAGIC RYTHEM
a. itikad, membawa kearah kehancuran
b. penderitaan, akan mengalami penderitaan sbgai balasan atas perbuatannya
c. pemahaman, kehendak tuhan tidak dpat dihindari o/ tragic hero
COMEDY DRAMA
- unsur2: membuat aneh sesuatu yg umum/ dibuat menyimpang, ex: mlalui tampilan fisik, penggunaan kata
- harus sesuai dgn selera/ kondisi penonton
a. High Comedy
- mempunyai tema ttu yg akan disampaikan dlm suatu cerita
- tdak berbau pornografi, lebih verbal dgn permainan kata2, sulit dicerna shgga tdak memancing tawa
b. Low Comedy
- tdak mempunyai tema ttu u/ suatu tampilan, tdak ada nalar, sangat kasar, tdpat kontak fisik, ekploitasi fisik
- TRAGEDY: peristiwa yg terjadi sangat serius dan berkahir tragis, tokohnya mempunyai kualitas ungul, penontonnya cenderung mengagumi tragic hero, tujuannya u/ katarsis
- COMEDY: peristiwa yg terjadi ringan dan lucu, berakhir dgn happy, tokohnya cenderung orang biasa, penonton cenderung menertawakan/memandang rendah karena tidak mempunyai kualitas unggul, tujuannyas u/ memancing tawa

PUISI

- William wordsworth: is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling reclacted in tranquility, aliran dari perasaan yg kuat tpi muncul dlam keadaan yg tenang
- Matthew Arnold: is criticsm of life, krpkan kritik kehidupan karena puisinya banyak digunakan u/ mengkritik
- Robert Forest, is provide the one permissible of saying onething and meaning another, menyediakan suatu cara u/ menyatakan suatu hal yg maknanya berbeda
- Penyair tdk menggunakan bhas ilmiah tpi cenderung memaparkan efek yg ditimbulkan oleh sesuatu pada imajinasi penyair

TUJUAN PUISI;

1. menyarankan makna bukan menyatakan
2. melukiskan makna bukan menceritakan
3. mendorong pembaca berkreasi bukan menerangkan
4. berlagu/berirama bukan berbicara
VIGURATY LANGUAGE:
- suatu cara u/ m’atakan sesuatu yg berbeda dgn cara biasanya karena bhs kiasan ini tidak bisa diterima scara literal, macam2 literal:
1. SIMILE, a figure of speech that uses like, as, or, as if to compare two essentially object, action, or attribute that share aspect of similarity
Ex: Humbert Wolfe, “like a small grey coffee-pot sits the squirrel”
2. METAPHORE, a figure in which one thing is imaginatively compare to or identified another dissimilar thing, menurut I.A Richards unsure metafora ada 2 yaitu, Tenor: ide yg diekpresikan, dan Vehicle: image dmn ide disampaikan
Ex: Stephen Spender “eye, gazelle, delicate wanderer, drinker of horizon’s fluid line”
Tenor: eye dan Vehicle : mata lincah spti rusa(gazelle)
3. PERSONIFICATION, a figure of speech in which human&sensibilities are attributed to animals, plants
Ex: Milton, Paradise Lost, berkisah ttb kejatuhan Adam&Hawa yaitu reaksi yg diberikano/ alam ketika alam dan hawa make sins, Tenor: sky
4. APOSTROPHE
5. PARADOX
6. METONIMI, a figure of speech that substitute the name of a related object, person or idea for the subject at hand, ex: kata crown replace raja, doblet&hose replace baju laki2, Petticoat replace baju dalam wanita
7. IMAGERY, deripresentation through language or sense experience, macam2;
- Visual Imagery, terkait dg indera penglihatan
- Auditory, terkait dg indera pendengaran
- Old Factory, indra penciuman
- Gustatory, terkait dgn indra pengecap
- Tactile, terkait dgn indra peraba
- Organic imagery, terkait dgn internal sensation, lapar, haus, lelah dll
8. SYMBOL, something that means more than what it is, ex:buku means pengetahuan, kursi means kekuatan
9. RHYME, the similarity of sound between two words, ex: old-cold, foam-dome, dusky-husky
10. ALLITERATION, the repetition of initial identical consonant sounds, ex: the fair breeze blew, the while foam flew, the furrow followed free
11. ASONANCE, the close repetition of middle vowel sounds between different consonant sounds, ex: fade-pale, lake-fate
12. ONOMATOPOEIA, the use of words whose sound imitates the sounds of the thing being named, ex: hum, buzz, clang, boom, hiss

Introducing Linguistic Morphology

Introducing Linguistic Morphology

1. The Basic Units

   • Three different kinds of ‘words’, they are:

• The cook was a good cook as cooks go, and as cooks go, she went

There are 15 orthographic words, because it is linked to the spelling.

There are 11 word-forms (or orthographic words), they are: the, cook, was, a, good, as, cooks, go, and, she, went because cook and cooks are forms “of the same words”

Lexemes are dictionary words

• 1a, Lee walked home 2a, Lee has walked home

1b, Lee went home 2b, Lee has gone home

Walked in 1a and 2a is not precisely the same element. In 1a walked realises walk +past tense, while in 2a realizes walk+past participle. So they are different grammatical words

• Element smaller than the words

• He was born stupid, and greatly increased his birthright

The word-form birthright, greatly, increased can divided in two parts. In increased we can divided in two parts, they are increase and –d, for the first we can substitute with enlarge/minimize and the second with –s and –ing.

The units which we arrive at within the word-form is call morphs.

• Every’one live’s by sell’ing some’thing

The morphs every, one, live, by, sell, some, and thing are called potentially free morphs, only by is actually free morph. Only the morphs –s and –ing are obligatory bound morph which can’t be word-forms by themselves but need to be attached to other morphs. Any morph which can realize a lexeme is termed a root, while obligatory bound morph which don’t realize lexeme and which are attached to roots to produce word-forms are called affixes.

In word beatings, beat is the root, and –ing and –s are affixes, while beating is a base which is something bigger than a root

• Inflection and Derivation

An inflectional affix is one which produces a new word-form of a lexeme from a base and A derivational affix is one which produce a new lexeme from a base.ex, represents, the prefix re is derivational, but the suffix –s is inflectional. Prefix are always derivational. There are three ways whether suffix are inflec…or derive…

1. If an affix changes the part of speech of the base, it is derivational. Ex: minim is a noun, minimal is an adjective, -al has changed the part of speech. Minimalise is a verb, minimalises is still a verb so –s is inflectional.

2. Inflectional affix always have a regular meaning, ex:-s in bicycles, dogs, shoes, the difference in meaning between the base an affix form is always the same “more than one”, -age in bandage, shortage, it is difficult to sort out any fixed change in meaning, so –age is derivational.

3. As a general rule, inflectional are fully productive but derivational are not. Ex: we can add -s in any non modal verb in English to make the “third person singular of the present indicative”, but you can’t add –ation to any non modal verb to make a noun, ex; produc(e)’ation, walk’ation.

   • Allomorps and Morphemes

There are 2 morphs in English which can be glossed as “indefinite article”: a and an,

A man, a horse, an oak, an old man. In this case, the choice between them is determined by phonetic sound or on the other hand is phonetically conditioned.

Lexically conditioned, in child-ren, -en is determined by the particular lexeme involve.Morphs can also be grammatically conditioned.

Morphs which realize a particular morpheme and which are conditioned are called the allomorphs of that morpheme.

LEXEME MORPHEMES

Realized by made up of one or more realized by

WORD-FORMS MORPHS

The morphs realise morphemes, and morphemes are abstract units of grammatical and semantic analysis.

2. The Morphological Structure of Words

• Word-building process using affixes

  1. Suffixes are used derivationally coz produce new lexeme, ex; constitu’ion’al’ity

  2. Prefixes are usually derivational, ex: dis’miss’ed

  3. Circumfixes, when a prefix and suffix act together to surround a base

• Reduplication

It is frequently used to indicate plurality, intensity and repetition, ex; lari-lari, jalan-jalan

• Word-building process by modification of the base

If segmental it may affect consonants or vowels and one or more segments.A change from a voiceless fricative to a voiced fricative cause a change from noun to verb in English, ex; thief- thieve, wreath- wreathe.

If suprasegmental it is differ in stress, ex; ‘discount(n)- dis’count(v)

• Cases involving shortening base

1. Backformation is a process that creates a new word by removing a real or supposed affix from another word in the language. ex; housekeep from housekeeper, donate from donation.

2. Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more sylabel. Ex; burger for hamburger, prof for professor.

• Processes involving several lexemes

The formation of a new lexeme by adjoining two or more lexemes is called compounding. Compound that have been illustrated so far are endocentric compound, which denote a sub-class of the items denoted by one of their elements, ex: a sea-bird is a kind of bird. Exocentric denote something which is not a sub-class of either of the element.ex; An egg-head is neither an egg nor a head.

• Alphabet –based formation

1. Blends are also called portmanteau words, which created from non-morphemic parts of two already existing items. Ex: aerobicise for aerobics and exercise, infomercial for information and commercial

2. Acronyms are formed by taking initial letters of some or all of the words in phrase or title and reding them as a word. Ex: AIDS, UNICEF

3. Conversion is a process that assign an already existing word to a new syntactic category. Ex:

n derived from v: (a building) permit, (a new) survey

v derived from n: ship (the package), button (the shirt)

v derived from a: empty (the box), open (a door)

• Unique Morphs

Are morph that only occur in one fixed expression in the language under discussion. Ex: -ter in laughter, cran in cranberry.

3. Defining the Word-Form

• Phonological Criteria

The P.C that can be used to define the phonological word are a disparate group.

1. Stress

There is tendency for each word-form to carry a single stress, ex: antidestablishment’arianism ‘was sup’posedly ‘the ‘longest ‘English ‘lexeme

There is only one stress for each lexeme in English. And if the stress falls on ‘the wrong sylabel’ it is never possible to have two contrastive stressed in the same word

2. Vowel Harmony

All the vowel in the word form share some phonetic feature such as backness, closeness or unroundedness. This means that affixes have at least two distinct allomorhs, phonetically conditioned by the vowel in the base. Ex: ‘s/he takes’, ‘s/he loves’.

3. Phonological process

It is determined by the boundaries of units larger than the segment. Some can apply only at the end of a syllable, some only at the beginning of a morpheme.

• Morphological and syntactic criteria

The Bloomfieldian definition of the word-form is a minimum free form, this means that a word-form can stand as a utterance on its own, (tidak bergantung pada unsure yg lain), ex:

• Did you say ‘indoor, or ‘outdoor’?

• In

There are three major criteria which units must meet in order to be considered word-form, they are:

1. Positional Mobility (bisa dipindah-pindah)

Means that the word-form as a whole can be moved relatively easily within the sentence, ex: This we must buy, we must buy this, this is positional mobility

2. Uninterruptability (tidah bisa dipecah)

Means that extraneous material can’t be introduced in to the middle of the word-form.

Ex:write

3. Internal Stability

Means that the ordering of items within the word-form is usually fixed and non contrastive, as opposed to the ordering of word-form within the sentence.

This three criteria coulb be classed together as defining the internal cohesion, ex:

• Jon can’t buy? Did you see the black bag?

• But Jamie can No, only the white

4. Productivity

• Productivity as a cline

Any process is said to be productive to the extent that it can be used in the production of new forms in language. In middle English, there was a general tendency to shorten stress vowel which were in the antepenultimate syllable of words.Ex:

• Cavity cave

• Heroine hero

• Holiday holy

Suffixes –able, - ment, are extremely productive added to transitive verbs

• Productivity as a Synchronic

• Growth drouth

• Depth breath

• Health faith

Suffixation of –th to form abstract noun in English is no longer productive. All productive morphs are also analyzable, but not all analyzable ones are necessarily productive. In word, treatment, shipment, -ment is highly generalised but no longer productive.

• Potential Words and Productivity in the Individual

Existence has usually been assumed to be defined by a listing in, for example, the Oxford English Dictionary. The procedure are:

• Firstly, words which are included in the OED are, in some sense, included pretty much in random

  • Apartness givenness

  • Belongingness maleness

None of the word above is in the OED, and yet they have been attested in writing and repeated

• The second reason for treating the lists from any particular dictionary with care, is that some of the word which are included in dictionaries are included more or less by mistake, ex: greenth is listed in the OED, yet it has never been a particularly frequently used word

• Thirdly, deciding on the basis of some list whether or not a word exists is to cut derivational morphology off from both syntax and inflectional morphology and to claim entirely separate condition of relevance for this part of the grammar

• Blocking

Blocking refers to the non-existence of a derivative coz of the prior existence of some other lexeme

• Cycler cyclist

• Typer typist

• Stealer thief

Firstly, blocking does’nt entirely prevent the coining of the words like words above by individuals. All that is blocked is the Institutionalisation of these words, that is their coming into general use in the society and so being listed in dictionaries. Secondly, blocking of this type only applies so long as the words cycler, typer are genuine synonymous with the word like cyclist, typist. Thirdly, blocking appears not to apply in so-called syntetic compound, and it is quite possible to speak of a sheep stealer even it would be abnormal to speak of stealer. Finally blocking doesn’t always work, not all of them, ex: normalcy means as the same as normality, especially in American English, it is usual word. One of them eventually to win out over the other ‘coz one of them is dominance and comes first.

• Defining the Productivity of a Process

1. A process said to be fully productive if it applies to every possible base, and those bases are defined solely in terms of their major category (noun, verb, adjective)

2. If it applies to every relevant base, defined in terms of a number of specific restrictions of type

   • Limitation of Productivity

   • Semi Productivity

If it doesn’t apply without exception to all bases defined by a certain part of speech