Introducing Linguistic Morphology

Introducing Linguistic Morphology

1. The Basic Units

   • Three different kinds of ‘words’, they are:

• The cook was a good cook as cooks go, and as cooks go, she went

There are 15 orthographic words, because it is linked to the spelling.

There are 11 word-forms (or orthographic words), they are: the, cook, was, a, good, as, cooks, go, and, she, went because cook and cooks are forms “of the same words”

Lexemes are dictionary words

• 1a, Lee walked home 2a, Lee has walked home

1b, Lee went home 2b, Lee has gone home

Walked in 1a and 2a is not precisely the same element. In 1a walked realises walk +past tense, while in 2a realizes walk+past participle. So they are different grammatical words

• Element smaller than the words

• He was born stupid, and greatly increased his birthright

The word-form birthright, greatly, increased can divided in two parts. In increased we can divided in two parts, they are increase and –d, for the first we can substitute with enlarge/minimize and the second with –s and –ing.

The units which we arrive at within the word-form is call morphs.

• Every’one live’s by sell’ing some’thing

The morphs every, one, live, by, sell, some, and thing are called potentially free morphs, only by is actually free morph. Only the morphs –s and –ing are obligatory bound morph which can’t be word-forms by themselves but need to be attached to other morphs. Any morph which can realize a lexeme is termed a root, while obligatory bound morph which don’t realize lexeme and which are attached to roots to produce word-forms are called affixes.

In word beatings, beat is the root, and –ing and –s are affixes, while beating is a base which is something bigger than a root

• Inflection and Derivation

An inflectional affix is one which produces a new word-form of a lexeme from a base and A derivational affix is one which produce a new lexeme from a base.ex, represents, the prefix re is derivational, but the suffix –s is inflectional. Prefix are always derivational. There are three ways whether suffix are inflec…or derive…

1. If an affix changes the part of speech of the base, it is derivational. Ex: minim is a noun, minimal is an adjective, -al has changed the part of speech. Minimalise is a verb, minimalises is still a verb so –s is inflectional.

2. Inflectional affix always have a regular meaning, ex:-s in bicycles, dogs, shoes, the difference in meaning between the base an affix form is always the same “more than one”, -age in bandage, shortage, it is difficult to sort out any fixed change in meaning, so –age is derivational.

3. As a general rule, inflectional are fully productive but derivational are not. Ex: we can add -s in any non modal verb in English to make the “third person singular of the present indicative”, but you can’t add –ation to any non modal verb to make a noun, ex; produc(e)’ation, walk’ation.

   • Allomorps and Morphemes

There are 2 morphs in English which can be glossed as “indefinite article”: a and an,

A man, a horse, an oak, an old man. In this case, the choice between them is determined by phonetic sound or on the other hand is phonetically conditioned.

Lexically conditioned, in child-ren, -en is determined by the particular lexeme involve.Morphs can also be grammatically conditioned.

Morphs which realize a particular morpheme and which are conditioned are called the allomorphs of that morpheme.

LEXEME MORPHEMES

Realized by made up of one or more realized by

WORD-FORMS MORPHS

The morphs realise morphemes, and morphemes are abstract units of grammatical and semantic analysis.

2. The Morphological Structure of Words

• Word-building process using affixes

  1. Suffixes are used derivationally coz produce new lexeme, ex; constitu’ion’al’ity

  2. Prefixes are usually derivational, ex: dis’miss’ed

  3. Circumfixes, when a prefix and suffix act together to surround a base

• Reduplication

It is frequently used to indicate plurality, intensity and repetition, ex; lari-lari, jalan-jalan

• Word-building process by modification of the base

If segmental it may affect consonants or vowels and one or more segments.A change from a voiceless fricative to a voiced fricative cause a change from noun to verb in English, ex; thief- thieve, wreath- wreathe.

If suprasegmental it is differ in stress, ex; ‘discount(n)- dis’count(v)

• Cases involving shortening base

1. Backformation is a process that creates a new word by removing a real or supposed affix from another word in the language. ex; housekeep from housekeeper, donate from donation.

2. Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more sylabel. Ex; burger for hamburger, prof for professor.

• Processes involving several lexemes

The formation of a new lexeme by adjoining two or more lexemes is called compounding. Compound that have been illustrated so far are endocentric compound, which denote a sub-class of the items denoted by one of their elements, ex: a sea-bird is a kind of bird. Exocentric denote something which is not a sub-class of either of the element.ex; An egg-head is neither an egg nor a head.

• Alphabet –based formation

1. Blends are also called portmanteau words, which created from non-morphemic parts of two already existing items. Ex: aerobicise for aerobics and exercise, infomercial for information and commercial

2. Acronyms are formed by taking initial letters of some or all of the words in phrase or title and reding them as a word. Ex: AIDS, UNICEF

3. Conversion is a process that assign an already existing word to a new syntactic category. Ex:

n derived from v: (a building) permit, (a new) survey

v derived from n: ship (the package), button (the shirt)

v derived from a: empty (the box), open (a door)

• Unique Morphs

Are morph that only occur in one fixed expression in the language under discussion. Ex: -ter in laughter, cran in cranberry.

3. Defining the Word-Form

• Phonological Criteria

The P.C that can be used to define the phonological word are a disparate group.

1. Stress

There is tendency for each word-form to carry a single stress, ex: antidestablishment’arianism ‘was sup’posedly ‘the ‘longest ‘English ‘lexeme

There is only one stress for each lexeme in English. And if the stress falls on ‘the wrong sylabel’ it is never possible to have two contrastive stressed in the same word

2. Vowel Harmony

All the vowel in the word form share some phonetic feature such as backness, closeness or unroundedness. This means that affixes have at least two distinct allomorhs, phonetically conditioned by the vowel in the base. Ex: ‘s/he takes’, ‘s/he loves’.

3. Phonological process

It is determined by the boundaries of units larger than the segment. Some can apply only at the end of a syllable, some only at the beginning of a morpheme.

• Morphological and syntactic criteria

The Bloomfieldian definition of the word-form is a minimum free form, this means that a word-form can stand as a utterance on its own, (tidak bergantung pada unsure yg lain), ex:

• Did you say ‘indoor, or ‘outdoor’?

• In

There are three major criteria which units must meet in order to be considered word-form, they are:

1. Positional Mobility (bisa dipindah-pindah)

Means that the word-form as a whole can be moved relatively easily within the sentence, ex: This we must buy, we must buy this, this is positional mobility

2. Uninterruptability (tidah bisa dipecah)

Means that extraneous material can’t be introduced in to the middle of the word-form.

Ex:write

3. Internal Stability

Means that the ordering of items within the word-form is usually fixed and non contrastive, as opposed to the ordering of word-form within the sentence.

This three criteria coulb be classed together as defining the internal cohesion, ex:

• Jon can’t buy? Did you see the black bag?

• But Jamie can No, only the white

4. Productivity

• Productivity as a cline

Any process is said to be productive to the extent that it can be used in the production of new forms in language. In middle English, there was a general tendency to shorten stress vowel which were in the antepenultimate syllable of words.Ex:

• Cavity cave

• Heroine hero

• Holiday holy

Suffixes –able, - ment, are extremely productive added to transitive verbs

• Productivity as a Synchronic

• Growth drouth

• Depth breath

• Health faith

Suffixation of –th to form abstract noun in English is no longer productive. All productive morphs are also analyzable, but not all analyzable ones are necessarily productive. In word, treatment, shipment, -ment is highly generalised but no longer productive.

• Potential Words and Productivity in the Individual

Existence has usually been assumed to be defined by a listing in, for example, the Oxford English Dictionary. The procedure are:

• Firstly, words which are included in the OED are, in some sense, included pretty much in random

  • Apartness givenness

  • Belongingness maleness

None of the word above is in the OED, and yet they have been attested in writing and repeated

• The second reason for treating the lists from any particular dictionary with care, is that some of the word which are included in dictionaries are included more or less by mistake, ex: greenth is listed in the OED, yet it has never been a particularly frequently used word

• Thirdly, deciding on the basis of some list whether or not a word exists is to cut derivational morphology off from both syntax and inflectional morphology and to claim entirely separate condition of relevance for this part of the grammar

• Blocking

Blocking refers to the non-existence of a derivative coz of the prior existence of some other lexeme

• Cycler cyclist

• Typer typist

• Stealer thief

Firstly, blocking does’nt entirely prevent the coining of the words like words above by individuals. All that is blocked is the Institutionalisation of these words, that is their coming into general use in the society and so being listed in dictionaries. Secondly, blocking of this type only applies so long as the words cycler, typer are genuine synonymous with the word like cyclist, typist. Thirdly, blocking appears not to apply in so-called syntetic compound, and it is quite possible to speak of a sheep stealer even it would be abnormal to speak of stealer. Finally blocking doesn’t always work, not all of them, ex: normalcy means as the same as normality, especially in American English, it is usual word. One of them eventually to win out over the other ‘coz one of them is dominance and comes first.

• Defining the Productivity of a Process

1. A process said to be fully productive if it applies to every possible base, and those bases are defined solely in terms of their major category (noun, verb, adjective)

2. If it applies to every relevant base, defined in terms of a number of specific restrictions of type

   • Limitation of Productivity

   • Semi Productivity

If it doesn’t apply without exception to all bases defined by a certain part of speech